HISTORY Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

HISTORY - Article Example This theory emphasis on mass communication as an agent to change. This theory is another example of planned change. Planned change has high probability of relapse and regression. Emergent change is sudden and not anticipated. The societies as well as individuals are always prone to change. Change basically refers to making or becoming different in some particular way without losing permanently the original characteristics. It may also mean, to become different in essence. Change can either be sudden or might be planned such that it is bound to happen, at one time or another. Change can either be individual, intergroup or social. In individuals change is further categorized into emotional, behavioral and cognitive. In inter-personal or relationships, change involves; contact hypothesis, de categorization and re-categorization and also acknowledgement, mourning and forgiveness. (Zaltman, 1977, p. 45). Basically, change can be emergent or planned; this whole issue depends on the type of change that we are talking about. If for instance we are talking about individual change management, Kurt Lewin in his model of change states that, there are 3 stages in this process. The first stage is called 'unfreezing'. (Harris 2004, p56.). According to Kurt, this stage involves overcoming inertia and dismantling the existing mindset of the individual. At this stage the natural defense mechanisms have to be by passed. Change occurs in the second stage. ... The final stage according to Kurt is known as the "Re-freezing" stage. The new mind step is beginning to get into place and one's comfort level is returning to the earlier levels. (Macredie 1998, p.53). An example in this model would be a drug addict who is determined to quit drugs. During the initial stages or otherwise known as the unfreezing period, the person is trying hard to stop the abuse. He/she has to contend with withdrawal symptoms and some are even likely to go back to drugs. They enter the second stage. The second stage is characterized by confusion. One doesn't know what they want. They are out of drugs but still looking for alternative replacements. The 'unfreezing' stage marks the complete metamorphosis form drugs to a drug free person. One is also comfortable with his/her new life style. (Bennis 1976, p.38). According to this theory, we can therefore see that change was planned because it has to undergo all those stages. According to Kubler-Ross's model change can also be emergent. The stages in this model describe the personal and emotional states that a person encounters when dealing with loss of a loved one. This type of change happens without prior arrangements or plan. Indeed, in some cases, people have gone mad after learning that their dear ones have died. The impact of that news is so strong that someone who was jolly and completely happy may even faint after hearing bad news. (Zaltman, 1977, p.63). Other people's lives never remain to be the same after such an ordeal. A young man, who was always happy and kind to almost anyone, developed emotional problems as well as temperament problems after he had an accident and realized that he was never going to walk again because he had been paralyzed. The derivatives of Ross's model can

Media Programming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Media Programming - Essay Example Television and films may also ruin the eyesight of people. The television projects contrast and brightness that could cause a reaction against people’s eyes. This makes the eyesight weaker. Also, this causes soreness in the eyes, and inn extreme cases, it may result to complete visual impairment in individuals. Movies encourage violence in the society. There is no doubt that there is a high production of violent movies now than ever before. This influences people in a big way by encouraging shootings, fights and disrespect in teenagers. These movies may also encourage indulgence in cults. A report from http://www.cybercollege.com/violence.html indicates that children who watch violent movies may end up getting convicted of a crime. Media programs also encourage a Larger than Life Character among children and teenagers. Media programs may air movies with skilled fighters, acrobatics and human beings with superhuman powers. This may cause children to try dangerous things in order to have the superhuman characters. For example, after watching Spiderman, children may subject themselves to spider bites. Media programs may also act as a means to propaganda. The main goal of film makers is to increase profits. Therefore, they may use controversial topics such as legalization of drugs, racism or human sexuality. The use of propaganda helps the filmmakers reach more people. However, it may raise agitations, protests and uproar among people. Media programs have many advantages and impacts in people’s lives.

Floral Diversity in Organic and Modern Farming

Floral Diversity in Organic and Modern Farming Is Organic Farming better for floral diversity than modern farming? 1.0 Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 Introduction. Agriculture has had a profound impact upon biological diversity. Agricultural specialization, mechanisation and intensification leading to compaction and soil erosion, and poor farm management, have resulted in a global decline in plant, invertebrate and bird numbers in recent decades (Stoate et al., 2001). The Law of Specialization has encouraged the clearing of natural habitat for the cultivation of a few species, with biodiversity being the victim of this â€Å"trade off† between productivity and variety. This â€Å"modern† approach to agriculture was encouraged and sponsored (i.e. through the Common Agricultural Policy – CAP) by the government after the Second World War. The impact of rationing was still fresh in the minds of the UK population and a concentrated effort was made to increase agricultural output. The â€Å"baby boom† of the 1950s also added incentive to these efforts. The drive to increase agric ultural output was a great success. New fertilizers (N, P, K) and pesticides (DDT etc) were extremely successful at improving crop yields. As time went by however, evidence began to slowly emerge of environmental damage. Despite growing environmental concerns, and numerous academic studies highlighting the negative impact upon floral diversity by modern agricultural practices, the world’s population is estimated to rise to 9-10 billion by 2050, which means there will be increasing pressure on land to build new homes. Consequently, global food security is heavily dependant upon technological advances in order to avoid Malthusians scenario of poverty and famine due to â€Å"overpopulation†.   The question is whether organic farming is better for floral diversity compared with â€Å"modern† farming, but ultimately, even if evidence points to the fact that organic is more favourable than â€Å"modern methods†, the question will be will it be capable of meeting the growing demands placed on agriculture and solve environmental problems? 1.2 Early concerns Rachel Carson sounded the warning bell against the processes and practices associated with agricultural intensification in her book, Silent Spring, published in 1962. In it Carson takes a negative view on the increasing use of agricultural chemicals:    Since the mid-nineteen forties, over 200 basic chemicals have been created for use in killing insects, weeds, rodents and other organisms described in the modern vernacular as pests, and they are sold under several thousand different brand names. The sprays, dusts and aerosols are now applied almost universally to farms, gardens, forests and homes non-selective chemicals that have the power to kill every insect, the good and the bad, to still the song of birds and the leaping of fish in the streams to coat the leaves with a deadly film and to linger on in soil all this, though the intended target may be only a few weeds or insects. Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down such a barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth without making it unfit for all life? They should not be called insecticides but biocides. (Carson, 1962). Carson also talked about the detrimental use of Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT). Research in the intervening years have somewhat validated her basic argument, though there were some criticisms concerning inaccuracies in her book. The Stockholm Convention is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs).   POPs, of which DDT is one of a so called â€Å"dirty dozen†, are chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and are toxic to humans and wildlife.   In acting as a signatory to the Convention, the Government signalled its intention to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment. 2.0 Pollution and Biodiversity Our knowledge of the ways in which Biodiversity is essential for the survival of humans, in addition to many other species, is still evolving. From unidentified species to potentially undiscovered medicines, biodiversity is an issue of worldwide importance, providing natural resources which are essential for sustaining not only life on earth, but also economic activities. Biodiversity helps to maintain a healthy and stable environment in which businesses can operate, and its conservation is increasingly viewed by scientists, economists and businesses alike as a key part of economic stability. The growth of environmental legislation in recent times represents a governmental acknowledgement of, and response to, a strong body of scientific data establishing links between pollution and the environment. In the UK, The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, established in 1970, interpreted â€Å"pollution† in broad terms of the â€Å"introduction by man into the environment of substances or energy liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems, damage to structures or amenity, or interference with legitimate uses of the environment† (Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 2004).   The availability of natural resources is dependant on a stable environment, which is maintained by complex interactions and processes within and between ecosystems. Any significant impacts of environmental pollution on biodiversity can impact upon our biosphere (Trevors, J.T., 2003). The costs following the loss of ecosystem services, and the resources they support, are unpredictable but likely to be considerable, therefore the management and minimisation of this risk should be of high strategic importance to any business. The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution’s broad definition of pollution effectively means that pollution can be anything that causes damage and/or aggravation to people, wildlife, or the environment such as chemicals, noise or gases. Due to the complex nature of relationships between organisms in an ecosystem, the release of pollutants into the environment can not only kill organisms outright, but they can also change the conditions and processes occurring within a system and result in changes that can degrade entire habitats and disrupt ecological processes. These changes have the potential to cause long-term environmental change through the accumulative effects of their release. Pollutants arise from a variety of sources, such as toxic substances, accidental spills, industrial processes or illegal dumping. Not all pollutants are necessarily man-made, however, human activities often exacerbate or increase their polluting effects. For example, uranium is a naturally occurring radioactive waste that needs to be safely managed, increasing the risk of contamination and radiation that can cause lethal genetic mutations and killing living organisms. In terms of biodiversity, uranium mining often occurs in remote areas that are considered valuable for biological diversity, therefore the control of risks such as leakages into groundwater and food chains is essential. The amount of pollution in the environment is a very significant issue; pollution needs to be reduced in order to reduce its impact on biodiversity. Efforts to reduce pollution often reveal the complex nature of environmental pollution. In the UK during the 1970s and 1980s there was a growing realization that freshwater eutrophication was an increasing problem. Initial research pointed to phosphorus from industrial pollution as the main source of pollution, particularly from Sewage Treatment Works (STWs) due to a growth in phosphate-based detergents. Additional tertiary treatment at STWs failed to reduce levels of eutrophication in the long-term and it soon became clear that diffuse pollution from agriculture was, and is, the main factor resulting in continued water quality problems. The use of P fertilizer has generally exceeded agronomic requirements and led to soil P saturation. Whilst P is an essential plant nutrient, excessive concentrations are affecting the ecosystems natural coping mechanism. The result is one of â€Å"the most pressing environmental problems facing the UK today† (Environment Agency, 2005). 2.1 Ecological Impacts What are the associated ecological impacts of the post-war drive in agricultural intensification? The impact of this intensification on bird populations has been dramatic. Birds provide good indicators of environmental change as they are easily monitored, well researched, and high up in the food chain (Furness and Greenwood, 1993). Between 1970 and 1990, Fuller et al (1995) found that 24 out of 28 species had contracted in range, with a decline of abundance in 15 out of 18 species for which population change could be assessed. Of these species, seven had declined by more than 50%, declines being most pronounced amongst granivorous species (i.e., those with a substantial seed component in the diet). Similar range contractions and population declines were not found in bird communities of woodland or other widespread habitat types over the same period. In addition to fertilizer and pesticide use, practices associated with agricultural intensification also included cultivation and re-seeding of grassland, simplified crop rotations, loss of marginal habitats and increased grazing levels. All of these practices were likely to have an impact on the availability of food for nesting and feeding birds (Wilson et al, 1999). The case of the decline of grey partridge Perdix perdix L. populations in Britain however, complicates this assertion. The decline was partly attributable to poor chick survival as a consequence of the effects of herbicide-spraying of cereals on insect food supply and not necessarily a reduction in food availability (Potts, 1986). However, agricultural practices have affected arable flora in one way or another. What species have been affected? Gramineae (including wild species and stock feed crops e.g. rye grass) Many agricultural practices affect grass abundance e.g. after fertilizer application, grazing intensification, herbicide application, cutting regime and ploughing. However, Wilson et al (1999) show that some of the practices had detrimental and non-detrimental consequences, some promoting abundance of some grasses whilst reducing abundance of others. For example, Increases in cutting, grazing, tillage, fertilizer applications and herbicide usage thus cause declines in species diversity, but favour those species responsive to these conditions, including the meadow-grasses Poa, which are of particular importance in the diet of farmland birds. Polygonaceae The Polygonaceae, represented on temperate European farmland mainly by Polygonum (knotgrasses and persicarias) and Rumex (docks and sorrels), have the capacity for high seed production, making them a rich source of food for birds but invasive weeds of arable and grassland. Reviews of long-term population trends (Wilson et al., 1999) suggest that most Polygonaceae in arable areas are likely to have declined dramatically, whereas in pastures, roadsides, spoil heaps and waste ground, populations may be increasing. Chenopodiaceae This family on farmland is represented by Chenopodium (goosefoots), Atriplex (oraches) and Beta (mainly cultivated forage and sugar beets). In non-crop Chenopodiaceae, herbicide applications and grazing control populations whilst fertilization may encourage growth due to preference for high Nitrogen concentrations. Populations have declined in arable areas (Wilson et al., 1999). Caryophyllaceae The main genera taken by birds on temperate European farmland are Cerastium (mouse-ears), Silene (campions and catchflies), Stellaria (chickweeds and stitchworts) and Spergula (spurreys). With the possible exception of chickweeds, decline of Caryophyllaceae on arable land is likely to have been widespread, but in pastoral areas and other fertile, disturbed areas, not subject to intensive herbicide control, population of chickweeds and mouse-ears may be maintaining themselves or increasing (Wilson et al., 1999). Asteraceae Composites found on temperate farmland in Europe include Arctium (burdocks), Artemisia (mugworts), Carduus (thistles), Centaurea (knapweeds), Cirsium (plume-thistles), Helianthus (sunflowers), Leontodon (hawkbits), Senecio (ragworts and groundsels), Sonchus (sow-thistles), Taraxacum (dandelions) and Tussilago (coltsfoot), all of which are eaten by birds. Of these, sunflowers are oilseed crops grown mainly in warm temperate farmland, whilst the remainder are all found in the wild flora. Evidence points to declines caused by cultivation and herbicide use, and increases in response to increased grazing pressure and fertilizer use. Dandelions are adversely affected by regular ploughing, whereas modern grassland practices such as intensive grazing and inorganic fertilizer application probably favour growth. In the long term, populations of most composites are likely to be stable or declining in intensively arable areas, but in other fertile, disturbed sites, not subject to inte nsive herbicide control, populations may be increasing (Wilson et al., 1999). Brassicaceae The diet of farmland birds includes Alliaria (garlic mustards), Capsella (shepherd’s purse), Raphanus (radishes), Thlaspi (pennycresses), Brassica (includes wild and cultivated varieties of oilseeds, turnips and cabbages) and Sinapis (charlock). Overall, wild Brassicaceae have probably declined dramatically on intensive arable farmland in recent decades (Wilson et al., 1999). Fabaceae On temperate European farmland, Fabaceae are characterised by low, creeping nitrogen-fixers such as Medicago (cultivated lucerne and medicks), Trifolium (clovers and trefoils) and Vicia (vetches and beans). Better drainage and regular grazing encourage legumes, but loss of ley-based rotations has reduced the overall availability of clovers and vetches as sown crops. In the long-term, populations of wild clovers and vetches on farmland are likely to be declining due to herbicidal weed control and grassland improvement, but sown populations of certain clover species (mainly white T. repens L. and red clover T. pratense L.) will mask these declines in areas where grass-clover leys are still sown (Wilson et al., 1999). Labiatae, On farmland, Labiatae are characterised by Galeopsis (hemp-nettles), Lamium (dead-nettles) and Stachys (woundworts). Herbicide applications are detrimental to most members of the family. In the long-term, populations of dead-nettles and hemp-nettles are likely to be declining in arable areas, although dead-nettles may be increasing in other fertile, disturbed habitats (Wilson et al., 1999). Ranunculaceae, Ranunculaceae (typified by buttercups Ranunculus) are in long-term decline in both arable and pastoral farmland, probably due to a combination of herbicide control on arable land, fertilization of grasslands, and loss of pasture to cultivation (Wilson et al., 1999). Boraginaceae, On farmland, Boraginaceae are characterized by Myosotis (forget-me-nots), which are known to be sensitive to herbicide applications. There is also some evidence that populations of field forget-me-not M. arvensis (L.) Hill are in long-term decline in arable land (Wilson et al., 1999). Plantaginaceae, Violaceae, Herbicide application was the only agricultural operation recorded as having detrimental effects on Plantaginaceae (plantains) and Violaceae (violets and pansies) (Wilson et al., 1999). Urticaceae, A review by Wilson et al., (1999) found no evidence of specific impacts of agricultural practices on Urticaceae (nettles). In the long term, however, common nettle Urtica dioica L. and annual nettle U. urens L. are likely to be stable or declining in arable habitats as a result of herbicidal weed control, but are probably increasing elsewhere in disturbed, fertile habitats. Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae (pokeweeds) are serious agricultural weeds in the Americas (Cousens and Mortimer, 1995), and increasingly so as aliens in parts of Europe. A review by Wilson et al., (1999) found no data on the effects of agricultural operations on the abundance of this family in Europe. 3.0 Analysis of Organic Farming3.1 Organic farming Organic farming has been shown to benefit some species. Recent studies in England suggest that organic systems support more broad-leaved plants than conventional systems. (e.g. Kay and Gregory, 1999). Kay and Gregory (1999) found that, out of 23 rare or declining arable plant species, 18 were more abundant on organic farms, with 13 of them being absent on conventional farms. However, if improvements were made in mechanical weed control technology in conventional farms these differences in plant abundance and species richness between the two systems could be reduced. 3.2 Organic farming a solution? When the environmental problems in agriculture came into spotlight, different forms of organic farming had been practiced in Europe for several decades. These farming methods were quickly presented as a solution for most of the problems agriculture is facing. One reason for the increase in organic agriculture in many countries in Europe today is the need to solve environmental problems. In such situations, we often tend to accept appealing solutions. Furthermore, intensive propaganda by representatives of organic farming movements has had a strong influence on public opinion, politicians, and scientists. But what is the likelihood that Organic farming can meet the requirements of agriculture and solve some of these major environmental problems? Although some environmental problems were already identified as a result of the industrialization of societies from the 19th century, the breakthrough of broad environmental consciousness, as epitomized by the Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, took place in the 1960s. New research orientations, national and multinational environmental protection agencies, and environmental interest organizations were founded. Within agriculture several organizations, sharing a prejudiced view of nature, biodynamic and organic-biological, promoted their agricultural methods as a solution to the environmental problems. One theory of organic farming, biodynamic farming, which is part of a comprehensive philosophy called anthroposophy, was presented by Steiner in 1924. Its aim was not to solve environmental problems but to introduce a form of production forces’. Biodynamic and other forms of organic agriculture exclude easily soluble inorganic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides on principle (KRAV, 1999). A comprehensive review was made by Hole et al. (2005) of the impacts on biodiversity of organic farming relative to conventional agriculture. They identified a wide range of taxa, including birds, mammals, invertebrates and arable flora, which benefit from organic management through increases in abundance and/or species richness. Also highlighted were three broad management practices (prohibition/reduced use of chemical pesticides and inorganic fertilisers; sympathetic management of non-cropped habitats; and preservation of mixed farming) that are largely intrinsic (but not exclusive) to organic farming, and that are particularly beneficial for farmland wildlife. However, most problems that occur in conventional agriculture may also be present in organic farming, such as erosion, nitrogen leaching, ammonia volatilization from animal wastes, high levels of native soil cadmium, accumulation of trace metals in soil, and subsoil compaction caused by farm machinery. Organic farming methods do not offer solutions to many of these problems. For example, the exclusion of easily soluble inorganic fertilizer does not necessarily imply less leaching or less eutrophication. On the contrary, leaching of total N from soil receiving animal manure, either composted or anaerobically stored, can be much higher than from inorganic fertilizer applied at the same N rate if measured over several years. Green manuring can also cause high nitrate leaching losses. From an environmental point of view, it does not matter whether the nutrients come from inorganic or organic sources. What matters is when, how and in what quantity plant nutrients are available to crops, i .e. if the nutrient supply is in synchrony with the demand of the crop (Myers et al., 1997). Crop quality is put forward as an important argument for organic farming. Crop quality depends on the plant nutrient status in the soil, the dynamics of nutrient release, weather conditions during growth, damage caused by pests, toxic compounds produced by the crops themselves and the adherent microflora, contamination with pesticides and pollutants, and the post-harvest treatment. Several investigations have clearly shown that the type of fertilization, contrary to the principle of organic farming, does not affect plant quality (e.g. Hansen, 1981) whereas the intensity of fertilization does. Thus, crop quality is not dependent on the principal difference between inorganic fertilization and organic manuring. Furthermore, considerable variation in crop quality can be found between farms regardless of whether they are using conventional or organic methods. This division into ‘organic’ and ‘conventional’ agriculture loses sight of the principal factors concerni ng crop quality and environmentally friendly agriculture. In contrast to conventional agriculture, organic farming without purchase of feed may result in a nutrient depletion of soils (Nolte and Werner, 1994). Through the import of feeding stuff to farms, which means a net input of nutrients, depletion is normally avoided. As the feeding stuff may be produced elsewhere with inorganic fertilizers, organic farming indirectly depends on the soil fertility of conventional farming. However, regulations about the amount of conventionally grown feeding stuff to be used in organic farming differ between countries. Side-effects caused by synthetic pesticides and drug feeding are not found in organic farming, a positive result. However, the exclusion of pesticides may result in increased concentrations of secondary plant metabolites and of mycotoxins of field fungi. Eltun (1996) reported higher concentrations of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in grain samples from organic than from conventional farming. Furthermore, in the same experiment no pesticide residues were found in grain samples grown conventionally. Thus, the exclusion of pesticides does not necessarily mean that crop products do not contain unwanted substances. The area for housing and outdoor movement of farm animals has received more attention in organic than in conventional agriculture. This concern is positive and space requirements should be determined for all types of farming. Humans have kept livestock for millennia, resulting in the selection of animals with behaviours that differs from the wild species. The natural behavior can not be the only guideline for livestock management. It is important to keep animals in such a way that the special requirements of each species are fulfilled and destructive forms of behaviour are avoided. In order to understand today’s organic farming movement, it may be useful to know that the highly influential form of organic agriculture, biodynamic farming (Steiner, 1975), had its roots in a philosophy of life and not in the agricultural sciences. A common attitude within the organic movement is that nature and natural products are good, whereas man-made chemicals are bad, or at least not as good as natural ones. This way of thinking may also explain why man-made fertilizers and synthetic pesticides are excluded. Although there is no reason to believe that nature is only good, as exemplified in agriculture by crop failures, plant or animal diseases, and the effects of natural disasters, this romantic way of thinking is widespread. The forces of nature are fantastic and filled with still unknown secrets, but at the same time the results of natural activity may be ‘bad’. That is why natural conditions cannot be the only guideline for an ethical code about interac tions between humans and nature. We have to define an ethical code that takes into account the full truth, and it is our responsibility to do so. As indicated above, views and beliefs originating from a philosophy of life are the driving force behind organic farming. People should have free choice concerning religion or a philosophy of life and a strong ethical foundation is very important, but placing philosophical ideas above scientific thinking, especially if they contradict scientific results, leads to severe communication problems. For example, to demand the exclusion of synthetic fertilizers shifts matters of science into the field of dogma. The fundamental question, why plant nutrients should be added in organic forms or as untreated minerals only, has never been proved. 4.0 Analysis of Alternatives4.1 Alternative solutions The bottom line is that current agricultural practices are not sustainable and alternatives are needed. Plant, invertebrate and bird numbers have all declined during the last century as a result of land management practices, whilst excess levels of fertilizer inputs have led to deteriorating water quality problems (of which, groundwater contamination and eutrophication are perhaps the most significant). The cause has been the increasing intensification and specialisation of farming, with a shift from mixed farming to arable farming in the east and grassland in the west. Biodiversity has also been impacted by the planting of autumn cereals. Whilst Organic farming is being promoted as a better alternative, there is growing interest in the use of genetically modified-based agriculture. 4.2 Biotechnology and Genetically Modified Foods Biotechnology can potentially play a significant input into sustainable agricultural productivity, particularly for poor and/or small scale farmers in developing countries. Some of the benefits include development of techniques to 1) facilitate enhanced resistance to insect pests/diseases responsible for reduced yields 2) ability to tolerate drought/salinity or heavy metals. The Nuffield Council on Bioethics, concluded in 2003 that some GM crops offer real benefits to those in the developing world. Thomas (SDI, 2003) uses the example of half the cotton grown in China during 2002 being genetically modified. The GM crops produced a toxin to the cotton bollworm, a pest that can devastate crops. Yields were estimated to have increased by 10% whilst there was a 60% decrease in reported cases of humans being impacted by the toxic effects of applying pesticides without protective clothing. The report did, however, highlight a need for economi c, political and social change. Watkinson (2000), in a study on sugar beet genetically modified to tolerate broad-spectrum herbicideglyphosate, found that densities of fat hen, a common weed in sugar beet, were less than 10% of those in conventional crops. The seeds of fat hen are an important winter food resource for farmland birds. Skylarks forage preferentially in weedy fields, so therefore the impacts of GM crops critically depend on the extent to which high-density patches of weeds are affected. Argentina provides another example. The uptake of Monsanto’s round-up ready soya was phenomenal during the mid to late 90s. Some 13 million hectares were converted to GM. However, increasing dominance of larger farmers has resulted in many smaller farmers leaving their lands. Traditionally, many people were employed for weeding but increased herbicide usage has resulted in unemployment and increasing concerns surrounding the impact on human health (Branford, 2002). The benefits of using herbicide resistant crops in this context are therefore questionable. Monsanto needs to assess GM application in Argentina in order to learn from any mistakes and develop best practice guidelines for the future. Companies such as Monsanto and Syngenta appear, committed to principles of global sustainable agriculture and both have germplasm protection projects, in addition to community and environmental projects. Monsanto, in conjunction with Bayer CropScience; BASF; Dow Agrosciences; Dupont and Syngenta have established an Agricultural Biotech Council (ABC) in order to promote a reasoned and balanced debate surrounding the use of agricultural biotechnology. However, it appears more like a union to promote the benefits of agricultural biotechnology. 4.3 Biosafety During the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) negotiations, governments were aware of the potential modern biotechnology had with regards the achievement of its 3 main aims; the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of the components of biodiversity, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. There was, however, a proviso for adequate safety measures for the environment and human health. This proviso constitutes Article 19 of the CBD, which relates to the handling of biotechnology and the distribution of its benefits. Four paragraphs constitute Article 19 and require parties to the Convention to: 1) take appropriate measures to ensure effective participation in biotechnological research activities, especially developing countries 2) to take practical measures to promote and advance access on a fair and equitable basis 3) to consider requirements of a protocol addressing   (including advance informed agreement) and; 4) make available information about the use and safety regulations, as well as any information on the potential adverse impact of the specific organisms. Decision II/5, established an Open-ended Ad Hoc Working Group on Biosafety to develop a draft protocol on biosafety, specifically focusing on transboundary movement of any living modified organism resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. The details and history of this working Group, from its formation to the subsequent adoption of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity on the 29 January 2000, is rather convoluted. Environmental / human health consequences and concerns arising from introduction of GM plants led to the development of regulatory regimes to assess safety. Imports of GMOs into the UK (and EC) are covered by existing Community legislation Council Directive 2001/18/EC on the deliberate release into the environment of GMOs. The Protocol is therefore most beneficial to developing countries without existing legislation on GMOs and who require information before deciding on the conservational and sustainable impact of accepting GMO imports. In the UK, further EC regulations were adopted arising from the need to address exported obligations. Such issues have led to the implementation of EC Regulation No. 1946/2003 on the transboundary movement of GMOs. 4.4 Does Sustainable Agriculture mean sustainable development? The Convention on Biosafety specifically addresses the variety of risks to rural ecosystems, particularly i

Prisons Dont Work Essay examples -- Critical Thinking Essays

Right now in the United States of America murderers, rapists, and child molesters are being set free. Prisoners are watching T.V., eating a meal, and using exercise equipment while law abiding citizens are starving and living in the gutters. Prisoners even have their own periodical. Dangerous criminals are walking the streets and crime is a way of life to many Americans. In America, crime does pay because our nations prison system is not working. The nations prison system must be changed because of major problems with the system such as overcrowding and the fact that early release programs do not work. Building more jails is expensive and does not solve anything. These problems can be solved by giving prisoners no chance for parole and imprisoning only violent offenders. The non-violent offenders should enter a work program for the duration of their sentence. Since 1980, jail and prison populations have grown by 172 percent(United States 11 Sept. 1994). Overcrowding is both inhumane to the prisoner and dangerous to the prison staff. When you put a lot of people, especially criminals, in close quarters tensions rise and the chance of a riot increases. If a riot occurs both prisoners and guards are put in danger. In Texas the jails are full. There is an estimated backlog of 29,000 state prisoners who are incarcerated in county jails awaiting new cells.(Brida 24 Nov. 1994) Texas is not the only state with overcrowding problems. For example, Ohios prison system is operating at 180 percent of capacity.(Varnam 16) Also, the federal prison system is 37 percent over-capacity(Clark 4 Feb. 1994). Statistics like this are found across the country. Prisons should have two objectives; 1) keep dangerous criminals off the streets ... ...ng more prisons cut the crime rate? The CQ Researcher 4 Feb. 1994URL:gopher://gopher.cqalert.com/0F1:25674:05CQR_FEBRUARY1994%20gopher. Cunniff, Mark A. and Patrick A. Langan. Recidivism of Felons on Probation, 1986-89. 24 Nov. 1994(found) URL:gopher://justice2. usdoj.gov/00/ojp/bjs/13. Prison Inmates To Work In Wildlife Management Areas.Associated Press 24 Nov. 1994(found) URL:gopher://gopher.cic.net/00/nircomm/ gopher/e-serials/general/education/univ-newspapers/daily- texan/today/94041507.s03_Prison.gz. Sanchez , Edward J. Look Beyond Capital Punishment. 26 Nov. 1994 (found) URL:?. United States. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Probation And Parole Populations Reach New Highs. 11 Sept. 1994. URL:gopher://justice2.usdoj.gov/00/ojp/bjs/probpar.txt. Voters Get Tough On Criminals. The Associated Press 9 Nov. 1994. URL:?. Prisons Don't Work Essay examples -- Critical Thinking Essays Right now in the United States of America murderers, rapists, and child molesters are being set free. Prisoners are watching T.V., eating a meal, and using exercise equipment while law abiding citizens are starving and living in the gutters. Prisoners even have their own periodical. Dangerous criminals are walking the streets and crime is a way of life to many Americans. In America, crime does pay because our nations prison system is not working. The nations prison system must be changed because of major problems with the system such as overcrowding and the fact that early release programs do not work. Building more jails is expensive and does not solve anything. These problems can be solved by giving prisoners no chance for parole and imprisoning only violent offenders. The non-violent offenders should enter a work program for the duration of their sentence. Since 1980, jail and prison populations have grown by 172 percent(United States 11 Sept. 1994). Overcrowding is both inhumane to the prisoner and dangerous to the prison staff. When you put a lot of people, especially criminals, in close quarters tensions rise and the chance of a riot increases. If a riot occurs both prisoners and guards are put in danger. In Texas the jails are full. There is an estimated backlog of 29,000 state prisoners who are incarcerated in county jails awaiting new cells.(Brida 24 Nov. 1994) Texas is not the only state with overcrowding problems. For example, Ohios prison system is operating at 180 percent of capacity.(Varnam 16) Also, the federal prison system is 37 percent over-capacity(Clark 4 Feb. 1994). Statistics like this are found across the country. Prisons should have two objectives; 1) keep dangerous criminals off the streets ... ...ng more prisons cut the crime rate? The CQ Researcher 4 Feb. 1994URL:gopher://gopher.cqalert.com/0F1:25674:05CQR_FEBRUARY1994%20gopher. Cunniff, Mark A. and Patrick A. Langan. Recidivism of Felons on Probation, 1986-89. 24 Nov. 1994(found) URL:gopher://justice2. usdoj.gov/00/ojp/bjs/13. Prison Inmates To Work In Wildlife Management Areas.Associated Press 24 Nov. 1994(found) URL:gopher://gopher.cic.net/00/nircomm/ gopher/e-serials/general/education/univ-newspapers/daily- texan/today/94041507.s03_Prison.gz. Sanchez , Edward J. Look Beyond Capital Punishment. 26 Nov. 1994 (found) URL:?. United States. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Probation And Parole Populations Reach New Highs. 11 Sept. 1994. URL:gopher://justice2.usdoj.gov/00/ojp/bjs/probpar.txt. Voters Get Tough On Criminals. The Associated Press 9 Nov. 1994. URL:?.

Family Expecations Essay

I have found that family expectations are both problematic as well as helpful as I have grown and matured.   My family’s expectations revolve around our shared histories and aspirations as well as their perceptions of what I might be successful at or enjoy in life.   On the other hand, my life outside of my family has developed to a point where I gain encouragement and confirmation about my abilities and projections from other sources, such as my peers, my work, and through socializing. My ultimate priorities are up to me and only I can determine whether or not I am meeting my expectations no matter what my family believes.   That being said, pressures and expectations from my family has helped me to identify certain paths that I might prove successful for me in the long term.   My family usually has my best intentions in mind when they discuss their expectations for me and that can be a comforting and confidence inspiring motivation.   Additionally, if I have doubts about meeting my expectations, my family is there to advise me on what they feel I should or should not be doing in a particular situation based on their wisdom and previous experiences. In contrast, I often feel that my family’s expectations for me are based around what they knew of me as a younger adult or child.   Instead of asking me about my current goals and projects, often times they will revert back to telling me what my dreams were as a kid, or even worse, what dreams they had for me when I was a kid.   I understand that they are trying to be optimistic and positive influences on me, but at the same time I have grown up outside of my family and have created new ideas and goals for my future; not the necessarily the future that they always have had envisioned for me. Prioritizing family expectations is a balancing act for me because I want to make my family proud while at the same time living life according to my own principles.   This can be a difficult terrain to traverse, but ultimately it leads to more open and honest discussions about the best way to live life.   In our family, these discussions can at times become heated, but they are always interesting and we come out of them with newfound respect and hopes for the future. I have found that sometimes not living up to family expectations has been the most fruitful decisions I have personally made in my life.   Making my own choices and following my dreams in spite of my family’s expectations has paid off.   My family is proud of me for having the courage and the ambition to follow through on what I believe in.   If that is in fact their ultimate expectation for me, then I have found the balance necessary to surpass those expectations in the face of all obstacles.

Export Finance in India Essay

Credit and finance is the life and blood of any business whether domestic or international. It is more important in the case of export transactions due to the prevalence of novel non-price competitive techniques encountered by exporters in various nations to enlarge their share of world markets. The selling techniques are no longer confined to mere quality; price or delivery schedules of the products but are extended to payment terms offered by exporters. Liberal payment terms usually score over the competitors not only of capital equipment but also of consumer goods. The payment terms however depend upon the availability of finance to exporters in relation to its quantum, cost and the period at pre-shipment and post-shipment stage. Production and manufacturing for substantial supplies for exports take time, in case finance is not available to exporter for production. They will not be in a position to book large export order if they don’t have sufficient financial funds. Even merchandise exporters require finance for obtaining products from their suppliers. This term paper is an attempt to throw light on the various sources of export finance available to exporters, the schemes implemented by ECGC and EXIM for export promotion and the recent developments in this field. Concept of Export Finance: The exporter may require short term, medium term or long term finance depending upon the types of goods to be exported and the terms of statement offered to overseas buyer. The short-term finance is required to meet â€Å"working capital† needs. The working capital is used to meet regular and recurring needs of a business firm like purchase of raw material, payment of wages and salaries, expenses like payment of rent, advertising etc. The exporter may also require â€Å"term finance† for medium and long term financial needs such as purchase of fixed assets and long term working capital. Export finance is short-term working capital finance allowed to an exporter. Finance and credit are available not only to help export production but also to sell to overseas customers on credit. Objectives of Export Finance: †¢ To cover commercial & Non-commercial or political risks attendant on granting credit to a foreign buyer. †¢ To cover natural risks like an earthquake, floods etc. An exporter may avail financial assistance from any bank, which considers the ensuing factors: a) Availability of the funds at the required time to the exporter. b) Affordability of the cost of funds. Appraisal: Appraisal means an approval of an export credit proposal of an exporter. While appraising an export credit proposal as a commercial banker, obligation to the following institutions or regulations needs to be adhered to. Obligations to the RBI under the Exchange Control Regulations are: †¢ Appraise to be the bank’s customer. †¢ Appraise should have the Exim code number allotted by the Director General of Foreign Trade. †¢ Party’s name should not appear under the caution list of the RBI. Obligations to the Trade Control Authority under the EXIM policy are: †¢ Appraise should have IEC number allotted by the DGFT. †¢ Goods must be freely exportable i.e. not falling under the negative list. If it falls under the negative list, then a valid license should be there which allows the goods to be exported. †¢ Country with whom the Appraise wants to trade should not be under trade barrier. Obligations to ECGC are: †¢ Verification that Appraise is not under the Specific Approval list (SAL). †¢ Sanction of Packing Credit Advances. Guidelines for banks dealing in Export Finance: When a commercial bank deals in export finance it is bound by the ensuing guidelines: – a) Exchange control regulations. b) Trade control regulations. c) Reserve Bank’s directives issued through IECD. d) Export Credit Guarantee Corporation guidelines. e) Guidelines of Foreign Exchange Dealers Association of India. Export-import bank of India (EXIM Bank) The Export-import bank of India (EXIM Bank) was set up in January 1982 as a statutory corporation wholly owned by central government. It is managed by the Board of Directors with repatriation from Government, financial institutions, banks and business community. The main objective of Export-Import Bank (EXIM Bank) is to provide financial assistance to promote the export production in India. The financial assistance provided by the EXIM Bank widely includes the following: †¢ Direct financial assistance †¢ Foreign investment finance †¢ Term loaning options for export production and export development †¢ Pre-shipping credit †¢ Buyer’s credit †¢ Lines of credit †¢ Re-loaning facility †¢ Export bills rediscounting †¢ Refinance to commercial banks The Export-Import Bank also provides non-funded facility in the form of guarantees to the Indian exporters. †¢ Development of export makers †¢ Expansion of export production capacity †¢ Production for exports †¢ Financing post-shipment activities †¢ Export of manufactured goods †¢ Export of projects †¢ Export of technology and software’s Export financing programmes provided by EXIM Bank India EXIM INDIA offers a range of financing programs that match the menu of Exim Banks of the industrialized countries. The Bank provides competitive finance at various stages of the export cycle covering. EXIM INDIA operates a wide range of financing and promotional programs. The Bank finances exports of Indian machinery, manufactured goods, and consultancy and technology services on deferred payment terms. EXIM INDIA also seeks to co-finance projects with global and regional development agencies to assist Indian exporters in their efforts to participate in such overseas projects. The Bank is involved in promotion of two-way technology transfer through the outward flow of investment in Indian joint ventures overseas and foreign direct investment flow into India. EXIM INDIA is also a Partner Institution with European Union and operates European Community Investment Partners’ Program (ECIP) for facilitating promotion of joint ventures in India through technical and financial collaboration with medium sized firms of the European Union. The Export- Import Bank of India (Exim Bank) provides financial assistance to promote Indian exports through direct financial assistance, overseas investment finance, term finance for export production and export development, pre-shipping credit, buyer’s credit, lines of credit, relending facility, export bills rediscounting, refinance to commercial banks. Loans to Indian Entities: †¢ Deferred payment exports: Term finance is provided to Indian exporters of eligible goods and services, which enables them to offer deferred credit to overseas buyers. Deferred credit can also cover Indian consultancy, technology and other services. Commercial banks participate in this program directly or under risk syndication arrangements. †¢ Pre-shipment credit: finance is available from Exim Bank for companies executing export contracts involving cycle time exceeding six months. The facility also enables provision of rupee mobilization expenses for construction/turnkey project exporters. †¢ Term loans for export production: Exim Bank provides term loans/deferred payment guarantees to 100% export-oriented units, units in free trade zones and computer software exporters. In collaboration with International Finance Corporation. Washington, Exim Bank provides loans to enable small and medium enterprises to upgrade their export production capability. †¢ Overseas Investment finance: Indian companies establishing joint ventures overseas are provided finance towards their equity contribution in the joint venture. †¢ Finance for export marketing: This program, which is a component of a World Bank loan, helps exporters implement their export market development plans. Loans to Commercial Banks in India: †¢ Export Bills Rediscounting: Commercial Banks in India who are authorized to deal in foreign exchange can rediscount their short term export bills with Exim Banks, for an unexpired usage period of not more than 90 days. †¢ Refinance of Export Credit: Authorized dealers in foreign exchange can obtain from Exim Bank 100% refinance of deferred payment loans extended for export of eligible Indian goods. †¢ Guaranteeing of Obligations: Exim Bank participates with commercial banks in India in the issue of guarantees required by Indian companies for the export contracts and for execution of overseas construction and turnkey projects. Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI) Government of India came forward to set up the Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI) in July 1948 under a Special Act. The Industrial Development Bank of India, scheduled banks, insurance companies, investment trusts and co-operative banks are the shareholders of IFCI. The Government of India has guaranteed the repayment of capital and the payment of a minimum annual dividend. Since July I, 1993, the corporation has been converted into a company and it has been given the status of a Ltd. Company with the name Industrial Finance Corporations of India Ltd. IFCI has got itself registered with Companies Act, 1956. Before July I, 1993, general public was not permitted to hold shares of IFCI, only Government of India, RBI, Scheduled Banks, Insurance Companies and Co-operative Societies were holding the shares of IFCI. Management of IFCI: The corporation has 13 members Board of Directors, including Chairman. The Chairman is appointed by Government of India after consulting Industrial Development Bank of India. He works on a whole time basis and has tenure of 3 years. Out of the 12 directors, four are nominated by the IDBI, two by scheduled banks, two by co-operative banks and two by other financial institutions like insurance companies, investment trusts, etc. IDBI normally nominates three outside persons as directors who are experts in the fields of industry, labour and economics, the fourth nominee is the Central Manager of IDBI. The Board meets once in a month. It frames policies by keeping in view the interests of industry, commerce and general public. The Board acts as per the instructions received from the government and IDBI. The Central Government reserves the power up to the Board and appoints a new one in its place. IFCI also has Standing Advisory Committees one each for textile, sugar, jute, hotels, engineering and chemical processes and allied industries. The experts in different fields appointed on Advisory Committees. The chairman is the ex-officio member of all Advisory Committees. All applications for assistance are first discussed by Advisory Committees before they go to Central Committees. Financial Resources of IFCI: The financial resources of the corporation consist of share capital bonds and debentures and borrowings. a) Share Capital: The IFCI was set up with an authorized capital of Rs. 10crores consisting of 20,000 shares of Rs. 5,000 each. This capital was later on increased at different times and by March, 2003 it was Rs. 1068 crores. b) Bonds and Debentures: The Corporation is authorized to issue bonds and debentures to supplement its resources but these should not exceed ten times of paid-up capital and reserve fund. The bonds and debentures stood at a figure of Rs.15366.5 crores as on 31st March 2003. c) Borrowings: The Corporation is authorized to borrow from government IDBI and financial institutions. Its borrowings from IDBI and Govt. of India were Rs. 975.6 crore on March 31, 2003. Total assets of IFCI as on March 31, 2003 aggregated Rs. 22866 crore. Functions of IFCI: o Granting loans or advances to or subscribing to debentures of industrial concerns repayable within 25 years. Also it can convert part of such loans or debentures into equity share capital at its option. o Underwriting the issue of industrial securities i.e. shares, stock, bonds, or debentures to be disposed off within 7 years. o Subscribing directly to the shares and debentures of public limited companies. o Guaranteeing of deferred payments for the purchase of capital goods from abroad or within India. o Guaranteeing of loans raised by industrial concerns from scheduled balls or state co-operative banks. †¢ Acting as an agent of the Central Government or the World Bank in respect of loans sanctioned to the industrial concerns. IFCI provides financial assistance to eligible industrial concerns regardless of their size. However, now-a-days, it entertains applications from those industrial concerns whose project cost is about Rs. 2 crores because up to project cost of Rs. 2 crores various state level institutions (such as Financial Corporations, SIDCs and banks) are expected to meet the financial requirements of viable concerns. While approving a loan application, IFCI gives due consideration to the feasibility of the project, its importance to the nation, development of the backward areas, social and economic viability, etc. The most of the assistance sanctioned by IFCI has gone to industries of national priority such as fertilizers, cement, power generation, paper, industrial machinery etc. It has sanctioned nearly 49 per cent of its assistance for projects in backward districts. IFCI introduced a scheme for sick units also. The scheme was for the revival of sick units in the tiny and small scale sectors. Another scheme was framed for the self-employment of unemployed young persons. The corporation has diversified not only merchant banking but also financing of leasing and hire purchase companies, hospitals, equipment leasing etc. were the other new activities of the corporation in the last few years. Promotional Activities: The promotional role of IFCI has been to fill the gaps, either in the institutional infrastructure for the promotion and growth of industries, or in the provision of the much needed guidance in project intensification, formulation, implementation and operation, etc. to the new tiny, small-scale or medium scale entrepreneurs or in the efforts at improving the productivity of human and material resources. (a) Development of Backward Areas: –IFCI introduce a scheme of confessional finance for projects set up in backward areas. The backward-districts were divided into three categories depending upon the state of development there. All these categories were eligible for concessional finance. Nearly 50 per cent of total lending of IFCI has been to develop backward areas. (b) Promotional Schemes:- IFCI has been operating six promotional schemes with the object of helping entrepreneurs to set up new units, broadening the entrepreneurial base, encouraging the adoption of new technology, tackling ‘the problem of sickness and promoting opportunities for self development and Self employment of unemployed persons etc. These schemes are as such: 1. Subsidy for Adopting Indigenous Technology 2. Meeting Cost of Market Studies 3. Meeting Cost of Feasibility Studies 4. Promoting Small Scale and Ancillary Industries 5. Revival of Sick Units 6. Self-development and Self employment Scheme Export Credit Guarantee Corporation of India (ECGC) In order to provide export credit and insurance support to Indian exporters, the GOI set up the Export Risks Insurance Corporation (ERIC) in July, 1957. It was transformed into export credit guarantee corporation limited (ECGC) in 1964. Since 1983, it is now know as ECGC of India Ltd. ECGC is a company wholly owned by the Government of India. It functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Commerce and is managed by a Board of Directors representing government, Banking, Insurance, Trade and Industry. The ECGC with its headquarters in Bombay and several regional offices is the only institution providing insurance cover to Indian exporters against the risk of non-realization of export payments due to occurrence of the commercial and political risks involved in exports on credit terms and by offering guarantees to commercial banks against losses that the bank may suffer in granting advances to exports, in connection wi th their export transactions. Objectives of ECGC: †¢ To protect the exporters against credit risks, i.e. non-repayment by buyers †¢ To protect the banks against losses due to non-repayment of loans by exporters Covers issued by ECGC: The covers issued by ECGC can be divided broadly into four groups: âž ¢ STANDARD POLICIES: issued to exporters to protect them against payment risks involved in exports on short-term credit. âž ¢ SPECIFIC POLICIES: Designed to protect Indian firms against payment risk involved in (i) exports on deferred terms of payment (ii) service rendered to foreign parties, and (iii) construction works and turnkey projects undertaken abroad. âž ¢ FINANCIAL GUARANTEES: Issued to banks in India to protect them from risk of loss involved in their extending financial support to exporters at pre-shipment and post-shipment stages. âž ¢ SPECIAL SCHEMES: such as Transfer Guarantee meant to protect banks which add confirmation to letters of credit opened by foreign banks, Insurance cover for Buyer’s credit, etc. STANDARD POLICIES ECGC has designed 4 types of standard policies to provide cover for shipments made on short term credit: †¢ Shipments (comprehensive risks) Policy: – to cover both political and commercial risks from the date of shipment. †¢ Shipments (political risks) Policy:- to cover only political risks from the date of shipment †¢ Contracts (comprehensive risks) Policy:- to cover both commercial and political risk from the date of contract †¢ Contracts (Political risks) Policy :- to cover only political risks from the date of contract RISKS COVERED UNDER THE STANDARD POLICIES: 1. Commercial Risks a) Insolvency of the buyer b) Buyer’s protracted default to pay for goods accepted by him c) Buyer’s failure to accept goods subject to certain conditions 2. Political risks a) Imposition of restrictions on remittances by the government in the buyer’s country or any government action which may block or delay payment to exporter. b) War, revolution or civil disturbances in the buyer’s country. Cancellation of a valid import license or new import licensing restrictions in the buyer’s country after the date of shipment or contract, as applicable. c) Cancellation of export license or imposition of new export licensing restrictions in India after the date of contract (under contract policy). d) Payment of additional handling, transport or insurance charges occasioned by interruption or diversion of voyage that cannot be recovered from the buyer. e) Any other cause of loss occurring outside India, not normally insured by commercial insurers and beyond the control of the exporter and / or buyer. RISKS NOT COVERED UNDER STANDARD POLICIES: a) Commercial disputes including quality disputes raised by the buyer, unless the exporter obtains a decree from a competent court of law in the buyer’s country in his favour, unless the exporter obtains a decree from a competent court of law in the buyers’ country in his favour b) Causes inherent in the nature of the goods. c) Buyer’s failure to obtain import or exchange authorization from authorities in his county d) Insolvency or default of any agent of the exporter or of the collecting bank. e) loss or damage to goods which can be covered by commerci8al insurers f) Exchange fluctuation g) Discrepancy in documents. SPECIFIC POLICIES The standard policy is a whole turnover policy designed to provide a continuing insurance for the regular flow of exporter’s shipment of raw materials, consumable durable for which credit period does not normally exceed 180 days. Specific policies are issued in respect of Supply Contracts (on deferred payment terms), Services Abroad and Construction Work Abroad. 1) Specific policy for Supply Contracts: Specific policy for Supply contracts is issued in case of export of Capital goods sold on deferred credit. It can be of any of the four forms: a) Specific Shipments (Comprehensive Risks) Policy to cover both commercial and political risks at the Post-shipment stage b) Specific Shipments (Political Risks) Policy to cover only political risks after shipment stage. c) Specific Contracts (Comprehensive Risks) Policy to cover political and commercial risks after contract date. d) Specific Contracts (Political Risks) Policy to cover only political risks after contract date. 2) Service policy: Indian firms provide a wide range of services like technical or professional services, hiring or leasing to foreign parties (private or government). Where Indian firms render such services they would be exposed to payment risks similar to those involved in export of goods. Such risks are covered by ECGC under this policy. The policy covers 90%of the loss suffered. 3) Construction Works Policy: It covers civil construction jobs as well as turnkey projects involving supplies and services of both with private and foreign government. This policy covers 85% of loss suffered on account of contracts with government agencies and 75% of loss suffered on account of construction contracts with private parties. FINANCIAL GUARANTEES Exporters require adequate financial support from banks to carry out their export contracts. ECGC backs the lending programmes of banks by issuing financial guarantees. The guarantees protect the banks from losses on account of their lending to exporters. Six guarantees have been evolved for this purpose:- (i). Packing Credit Guarantee (ii). Export Production Finance Guarantee (iii). Export Finance Guarantee (iv). Post Shipment Export Credit Guarantee (v). Export Performance Guarantee (vi). Export Finance (Overseas Lending) Guarantee. These guarantees give protection to banks against losses due to non-payment by exporters on account of their insolvency or default. The ECGC charges a premium for its services that may vary from 5 paise to 7.5 paise per month for Rs. 100/-. The premium charged depends upon the type of guarantee and it is subject to change, if ECGC so desires.

Free Essays on Culture Wars

Culture Wars While I, as an artist, feel that the debate over Serrano’s â€Å"Piss Christ† and Mapplethorpe’s â€Å"The Perfect Moment† exhibit is ridiculous, I can appreciate the need for debate in our society. A world where everyone agrees with everyone else, while impossible, would be incredibly frustrating to live in. As a whole our society thrives on debate. This is why we have a political democracy, or some form of it, and not a dictatorship. Dissent and debate are important tools in our culture that are used to further the knowledge and understanding of society. Censorship should not be part of this system. Censorship has been an issue for as long as have been organized power structures in communities. Censorship is something that is done by people who are afraid of new ideas, different ideas, and ideas that are not given to them by someone higher up than themselves. Censorship is based on fear, the fear of losing one’s power, the fear of corrupting morals, the fear that young adults and children are not capable of thinking for themselves, and the fear that god will not approve. One of the main focuses behind censorship is religion. Religion is a tool that is used by powerful men who wish to have an easy means of control. Religion is thought to be a rational set of standards by which people are supposed to live their lives, but it seems more like a control mechanism for those who desire power. The American Family Association is a good example of how religion can mobilize a group of people to censor things that otherwise would be considered normal. On their website the AFA states, â€Å"The bible is clear on the matter of homosexuality. It is a sin†¦ The consequences of calling this behavior anything but what god calls it are staggering. For example, AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases are rampant among homosexuals† (See attached material). This one sided, biased opinion omits the fact that the AID... Free Essays on Culture Wars Free Essays on Culture Wars Culture Wars While I, as an artist, feel that the debate over Serrano’s â€Å"Piss Christ† and Mapplethorpe’s â€Å"The Perfect Moment† exhibit is ridiculous, I can appreciate the need for debate in our society. A world where everyone agrees with everyone else, while impossible, would be incredibly frustrating to live in. As a whole our society thrives on debate. This is why we have a political democracy, or some form of it, and not a dictatorship. Dissent and debate are important tools in our culture that are used to further the knowledge and understanding of society. Censorship should not be part of this system. Censorship has been an issue for as long as have been organized power structures in communities. Censorship is something that is done by people who are afraid of new ideas, different ideas, and ideas that are not given to them by someone higher up than themselves. Censorship is based on fear, the fear of losing one’s power, the fear of corrupting morals, the fear that young adults and children are not capable of thinking for themselves, and the fear that god will not approve. One of the main focuses behind censorship is religion. Religion is a tool that is used by powerful men who wish to have an easy means of control. Religion is thought to be a rational set of standards by which people are supposed to live their lives, but it seems more like a control mechanism for those who desire power. The American Family Association is a good example of how religion can mobilize a group of people to censor things that otherwise would be considered normal. On their website the AFA states, â€Å"The bible is clear on the matter of homosexuality. It is a sin†¦ The consequences of calling this behavior anything but what god calls it are staggering. For example, AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases are rampant among homosexuals† (See attached material). This one sided, biased opinion omits the fact that the AID...

How to Efficiently Publish Content With Shawn Smith From Trizone

How to Efficiently Publish Content With Shawn Smith From Trizone Have you thought about what makes someone a thought leader? One of the best ways is to publish content consistently. Today we’re talking to Shawn Smith, the co-owner of Trizone. Shawn knows all about how to create high-quality content with limited resources, how to involve subject matter experts in creating your content, and why automating processes can help you get everything done. You’ll want to stay tuned to hear about all of this and more! A bit about Trizone and what Shawn does there as a â€Å"jack of all trades. What it’s like working with a small team and how they work as efficiently as possible. What fluidity means to Shawn and how it helps his team be more effective and productive when it comes to creating great content. How automating some of the process helps Shawn and his team be more efficient and save time. How and why the Trizone team works with subject matters to help them with their content creation and thought-leadership. Also, Shawn talks about how he gets into contact with them and gets them to contribute. Shawn’s best tips for working with subject matter experts and collaborating with a remote team of people. Information about the Trizone workflow process and why it works for them. Advice for a small team who is looking to become an authority in their niche through content creation. Links: Shawn Smith Trizone Slack If you liked today’s show, please subscribe on iTunes to The Actionable Content Marketing Podcast! The podcast is also available on SoundCloud, Stitcher, and Google Play. Quotes by Shawn: â€Å"Once we’ve built a piece of content, we start to go and jiggle it. We use the social media template and then we start building it out. It’s so quick and easy.† â€Å"We spend a lot of time with [experts] talking about their subject matters in depth because they do bring a wealth of information that, clearly, we will never have.† â€Å"Stay on point. Whatever you believe is right, stick with it.

Centre And Then Compare Their Efficiency Essay -- Variable cost, Costs,

ï‚ § Market based transfer pricing – In this case Country A charges Country B according to the market price. Therefore, the manager’s performance is comparable as both have opportunity to make profit. ï‚ § Negotiated Transfer Pricing – Here the prices are negotiated, keeping profit margin for each of them. In this case they are also comparable. ï‚ § Full cost transfer pricing – In this case, the suppliers do not keep profit for their division, instead full cost is transferred to another department and the final profit is made by the last department. Thus, the profit centres are not comparable to each other. ï‚ § International transfer pricing – Since we know they trade among each other across borders also, they also need to be aware of taxation rates, currency rates, transportation costs and local suppliers in different countries in order to set prices. Here, each portfolio cannot be compared based on profit margins. c) Improves efficiency and speed of decision making: As the profit centre managers have authority to decide on their suppliers, customers, selling prices, etc, they have the opportunity to perform tasks at a faster pace and increased efficiency. d) No risk of reduced profitability: Revenue centre managers are only responsible for generating sales, and they do it at the cost of reduced profitability, but profit centre managers generate revenue making sure profits are earned. 6.2 Now let us discuss the Drawbacks of the profit centre managers: a) Unable to make capital investments: Profit centre managers are not authorized to make investment decisions; resulting in loosing opportunity to make profitable investment in specif... ... middle of paper ... ... 20 Unit variable cost of buying 7 15 20 24 (4) 1 3 4 Annual requirements (units) 3000 4000 5000 6000 So, Extra Variable Cost of Buying (12000) 4000 15000 24000 Fixed Cost of Buying 1000 2000 3000 4000 Extra total cost of buying (13000) 2000 12000 20000 Assuming that fixed cost will remain constant whether or not the company buys or makes the products, the relevant cost of manufacture will be considered the variable cost. In this circumstance, the company should only buy products if the

Disaster Risk Management (Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment) Essay

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Behaviour Policy in Schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Behaviour Policy in Schools - Essay Example This paper illustrates that the dynamics of educational policy-making keep changing due to changes in the environment. Contrary to previous years where the national government made policies regarding education, nowadays there is more input from other actors both in government and private sphere. The state and local governments are involved as well as the entrepreneurs, consultants, professionals, teachers and school leaders. Furthermore, modern education has been marketized to suit economic interests thus bringing into the context other actors. According to Hulme, R., and Hulme, M., the spaces in which policy is thought and done have also changed. The use of technology has changed the context in that now education can not only be offered at schools but also at home and across national boundaries through e-learning. Policymakers, therefore, have to take into consideration such dynamics. Ainley also observes that education system has evolved from â€Å"national system locally administ ered to a local system nationally administered.† In the United States, there has been a push for more standardized reforms to enhance cohesiveness, fairness, and equity. It is a requirement for schools by the Education and Inspections Act of 2006 to have a behavior policy which includes school rules. This policy is part of the wider national education policies. The aim of this paper is thus to discuss the policy process in schools in relation to behavior policies. To accomplish this, the paper will discuss the standards, institutional contexts and the key actors in policy making.

Civilization vs. Savagery Essay Example for Free

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Sources Of Finance And Working Capital Management Finance Essay

Sources Of Finance And Working Capital Management Finance Essay In the financial context, the working capital management would include the management of debtors, creditors, stock, cash and bank account. This is a kind of short term financing as working capital management will cover current assets and current liability. It is one of the most important and time-consuming activities of the financial manager to ensure the solvency of the firm while attempting to maximize the firms value, there is a constant need to balance profitability and risk. Proper cash management plays an important part to meet permanent financing needs (pay creditors, pay taxes etc). few methods to ease the shortage of cash, such as postpone capital expenditure, negotiation with suppliers about the postpone or reduction of payment with extra caution as any in appropriate negotiation might hurt trading relationship. Furthermore, business can pay the creditor within the discount period so as to pay less to the vendor to enjoy discount, this is a kind of short term financing as it lower down the working capital. No any cost is carried with such kind of financing; business can enjoy higher profit but bear lesser risk. There are 3 basic financing strategies for working capital management to determine the appropriate mix of short-term and long term financing, which would consist of: the aggressive strategy, the conservative strategy and the moderate strategy. The aggressive strategy uses short-term funds to finance all of the firms seasonal and perhaps, a portion of its permanent needs, however, the cost and risk should be taken for consideration. Lower cost since short term financing cost is cheaper but higher risk as the net working capital is lowest. This may have difficulty in obtaining long term fund in an emergency when more financing is required. The conservative strategy uses long term fund to finance all of a firms projected needs and uses short terms funds only in emergencies. Higher cost is incurred since long term financing is more expensive and not needed all year long but low risk since net working capital is high, in addition, short term financing may be readily available in emergency. The moderate financing strategy is a compromise between the aggressive and conservative financing strategies. This result in a level of net working capital somewhat higher than that in aggressive strategy but lower than that of a conservative strategy. Question 2 There are different kind of financing sources which business can gather for its needs. There are four major types of financing such as government aid, business owners, borrowing from the bank and other way of borrowing. For short term financing, all kinds of business would like to borrow loan from the bank, industrial and financial institutions as HSBC (UK) help in promoting new companies, expanding and development of existing companies, providing underwriting facility, provision of local and foreign currency for the purchase of machinery. Commercial paper can be another type of financing which is an unsecured promissory notes issued by very large firms such as HSBC,GM as commercial paper is usually sold at a discount from its face value. Factoring and invoice discounting are the other 2 kinds of short term financing, which simply means that organisation get the advance cash by assign its debt or invoice to the factor, which normally can up to 80% of the value of debts or the amount of selected invoices. Business can through various forms to obtain the medium and long term financing such as debt financing, equity financing and others various forms. Debt financing is ideal for business as it is cheaper to use debt than other forms of financing because lender take lower risk than other long term contributors of capital, long term debts can be obtained through 2 ways: a term loan made by a financial institution such as HSBC which provides flexible business loan, repay over periods of 12 month to 15 years (10 years for fixed rate). The sale of bonds to institutional and individual investors, normally corporate bond are usually issued with maturities of between 5 to 30 years for raising large sum of money to meet its financing needs. Medium and long term financing are obtained through equity financing such as capital market and Initial public offering (IPO), through borrowing and selling shares, company can get much more cash which can be used for further development and other business opportunities. In addition, Listed company can also raise capital through issue right share which is relatively cheap and normally large amount of capital often be raised. Commercial mortgages offered by financial institutes would finance the business to buy freehold or long leasehold premise, for example: bank of Ireland offers flexible payment terms of up to 20 years with optimal repayments throughout the period of the loan. This would ease the tense of businesss medium and long term financing needs. Finally, a debenture is a long-term debt instrument which companies to obtain funds. A debenture is usually unsecured in the sense that there are no liens or pledges on specific assets. It is however, secured by all properties not otherwise pledged. This would satisfy corporate medium and long term financing needs. Question 3 Please refer to the appendix. (Excel format) Question 4 There is different tax liability applied for sole traders, partners and limited companies. For the sole traders, if he/she has any income from self-employment, then he/she should pay any Income Tax and National Insurance contributions due. This will depend on how much you earn from self-employment as he may have to pay Class 2 and Class 4 National Insurance contributions. Class 2 National Insurance contributions were charged at a flat rate, either by monthly Direct Debit or by quarterly bill. However, income Tax and Class 4 National Insurance contributions are based on sole traders profits from self-employment. There is several allowances for personal to claim, such as personal allowance, blind persons allowance, married couples allowance, maintenance payment relief, tax allowances and reliefs. Similar to sole trader, partners have to file an individual Self Assessment tax return. Moreover, partners have to fill in the partnership supplementary pages SA104. In addition, the nominated partner must also file a Partnership Return SA800 showing each partners share of the profits or losses. Supplementary pages might be included too, depending on what types of income the partnership has. The nominated partner is responsible for filing the partnership return but all partners will be jointly liable for any penalties, surcharges and interest if the return is late or inaccurate. Each partner is personally responsible for paying the tax and Class 4 National Insurance contributions due on their share of the partnership profits. Now comes to companies. From 1 April 2010, the corporate tax will be 28%, the taxation changes can be found in the appendix such as small companies tax rate is 21%. A non-resident company carrying on a trade in the UK through a permanent establishment located in the UK is liable to corporation tax on all income and gains attributable to that establishment. Corporation tax rates are fixed for each financial year ended 31 March. If the companys accounting period does not coincide with the financial year, its profits must be time-apportioned and the corporation tax rate is applied accordingly. Marginal relief applies to companies with profits between  £300,000 and  £1,500,000. The tax thresholds may be reduced where the UK Company has associated companies worldwide or an accounting period of less than 12 months. Large companies (broadly, those with profits taxed at 28%) are required to pay their tax to HM Revenue (HMRC) in instalments (generally in four equal instalments). The first payment is due six months and 14 days from the first day of the accounting period. There is a minimum limit which enables companies with an annual corporation tax liability of  £10,000 or less to avoid making such payments. For companies not required to pay their tax in instalments to HMRC, corporation tax is due for payment nine months and one day after the end of the companys accounting period Question 5 In the new tax incentive scheme, all business are eligible for the PIC( Productivity and Innovation Credit) for the year of assessment 2011 to 2015 if company invest in any one of following: Enhanced capital allowance or deduction for acquisition or leasing of prescribed automation equipment; Enhanced deduction of qualifying training expenditure; Enhanced writing-down allowance for acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights; Enhanced deduction of costs for registering certain Intellectual Property Rights; Enhanced deduction of qualifying research and development expenditure; and Enhanced deduction of qualifying design expenditure. Business can deduct up to 250% of their expenditure which incurred during these 5 years on each of these actitivities. Form the YA 2011 to 2012, a combined of 600,000 dollars of expenditure of each activity and 300,000 dollars of expenditure for YA 2013 to 2015 can be deducted from their income. In addition, businesses are eligible to convert up to $300,000 (but not less than $1,500) of the qualifying deductions for all six qualifying activities under the PIC   at a rate of 7% into a cash payout of up to $21,000 each year. This new scheme will promote business to invest most on machinery and train their employees to meet one national goal- more productive and innovative for the nation, for the worldwide competitiveness. For the new start up company, company can claim full tax exemption on the first 100,000 dollars of normal chargeable income and 50% for the next 200,000 dollars. This scheme will support local entrepreneurs and help local business grow as the starting of business is always difficult. Other common expenses or tax incentive companies can enjoy are: business expense, capital allowance, industrial building allowances, land intensification allowance, loss carry-back relief and unutilised losses, capital allowances and donations. Question 6 Problem 2 500,000=100,000+150,000+250,000 The payback period is 3 years. Year Cash Flow PV of Cash Flow Cumulative 0 -500,000 -500,000 -500,000 1 100,000 100,0000.9009=90090 -409910 2 150,000 150,0000.8116=121,740 -288170 3 250,000 250,0000.7312=182,800 -105,370 4 300,000 300,0000.6587=197,610 PV=FVx(PVIFn,11%) The discounted payback period=3+ 105,370/197610=3.53years Since 3 Problem 4 a) Year Cash Flow PV of Cash Flow 0 -225,000 -225000 1 75,000 75,0000.8547=64,102.5 2 125,000 125,0000.7305=91,312.5 3 200,000 200,0000.6244=124,880 (total)=280,295 PV=FVx(PVIFn,17%) NPV=280,295-225,000=55,295 b) PI= 280,295/225,000=1.26 c) The project should be accepted as a profitability index greater than 1 and there is consistent with a positive net present value, 1.26 indicates that company can earn the 17% of required rate of return, plus provide a net present value of $ 0.26 per $1.00 of net investment. Problem 6 Year Cash Flow PV of Cash Flow 0 -875,000 -875,000 1 400,000 400,0000.8850=354,000 2 500,000 500,0000.7831=391,550 3 600,000 600,0000.6931=415,860 Total=1,161,410 NPV= -875,000+400,000/(1+r)+500,000/(1+r)2+600,000/(1+r)3=0 IRR=30% Beginning Value=875,000 Terminal Value=354,000+391,550+600,000=1,345,550 So: MIRR=24% 24%>13% and 30%>13%, so we should accept the project. Question 7 There are several technique of financial appraisal, such as NPV, IRR,payback period, discounted payback period etc. Both NPV and IRR generate same accept/reject decision at given cost of capital but may rank project differently due to underlying assumptions such as NPV assumes cash flow are reinvested at the cost of capital( k is from funding), IRR assumes cash flow are reinvested at the internal rate of return itself( k is for project), thus the magnitude and timing of cash flows will affect the ranking of the projects. Theoretically, NPV is superiors than IRR as it assumes cash flow s are reinvested at the cost of capital which is more realistic than being able to reinvest at a higher rate( usually) in the IRR. Thus, NPV will be more effective to measure project prospect. There are a number of projects for which using IRR is not as effective as using NPV to discount cash flows. IRRs major limitation is also its greatest strength: it uses one single  discount rate to evaluate every investment. Practically, IRR is superior, as it is easier to understand, though more difficult to calculate as trial and error approach is used to find the IRR. The NPV method is inherently complex and requires assumptions at each stage discount rate, likelihood of receiving the cash payment, etc. The IRR method simplifies projects to a single number that management can use to determine whether or not a project is economically viable. The result is simple, but for any project that is long-term,  that has multiple cash flows at different discount rates, or that has uncertain cash flows in fact, for almost any project at all simple IRR isnt good for much more than  presentation value, therefore, IRR is less effective than the NPV. For payback period method, there are two main problems associated with it: It ignores any benefits that occur after the payback period and, therefore, does not measure profitability and ignores the time value of money. Whereas for discounted payback period method, it considers the time value of money and the riskiness of the projects cash flows (through the cost of capital) but no concrete decision criteria that indicate whether the investment increases the firms value and it requires an estimate of the cost of capital in order to calculate the payback and ignores cash flows beyond the discounted payback period. In general, each method has the certain extent of effectiveness on project prospect measurement. Question 8 a)Current ratio = Current Assets/Current Liabilities = 146,438,269/220,500,307 = 0.664 A ratio of 0.664 means that for every $1 owned by the firm, it has $0.664 of current assets that can be converted into cash to meet these debt obligation, so company can not cover its debt now. b) Quick ratio = (CurrentAssets-Inventory-Prepaid Expenses)/Current Liabilities = (146,438,269-59,716,920)/ 220,500,307 = 0.393 A ratio of 0.393 means that each dollars of short-term debt is backed by $0.393 of cash or near-cash assets. c) Inventory Turnover= Cost of Goods sold/Ending Inventory =333,027,693/59,716,920 =5.577 A ratio of 5.577 times means that during the year, on the average, the company sell its inventory 5.577 times. Number of days it takes to sell its stock are 365/5.577=65.4. d) Profit Margin =Gross Profit/Net Sales =65,423,180/1,254,805,671 =0.052 $1 net sales generate $0.052 towards covering operating expenses and the excess contribute to net profit. e) Return on assets =Net operating profit before interest/ending total assets = (44,815,036+41,737,790)/1,612,578,813 =0.054 Every $1 asset generates a profit of $0.054. f) Return on common stockholders equity = net profit after tax/ending ordinary stockholders equity = 44,815,036/516,770,461 =0.087 It means that every $1 invested by the ordinary stockholder earns a net profit of $0.087 g) Debt to total asset ratio =total liabilities/total asset =1,095,808,352/1,612,578,813 =0.680 It means that 68% of the total asset are finance by borrowing as the percentage of assets financed by creditors increases, the riskiness of the company increases. h) Times interest earned = (Net profit before deducting interesttax/interest expense = (44,815,036+41,737,790)/ 41,737,790 =2.074 It means that recurring income is 2.074 times of interest payment. i) Asset Turnover =revenue/total asset =1,254,805,671/1,612,578,813 =0.778 This means that companies with low profit margins tend to have high asset turnover, it indicates pricing strategy. This ratio is more useful for growth companies to check if in fact they are growing revenue in proportion to sales by 0.778 times. ( 2497 words)